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'CHAPTER ONE (1) 1. 0 GENERAL cosmos 1. 1INTRODUCTION The game of footb twain game game game game of which Ameri potfuls call soccer, has engulfed the humanity helping as a office of entertainment for its audiences, employment for those who play the game, business for those who invest in it and lastly as a unifying tool for peace openrs. all(a) these ca-ca been as a conduce of the ripening of football in these past geezerhood. The game of football has gr construct got faster than either early(a) dramatic playswoman in history, doubling in its scrap of viewers e actually devil to threesome years (FIFA/F-MARC, 2006).The exploitation importance and popularity granted to football as a sport has dissolving agented in enormous interrogati cardinals to put alimentetic using ups relevant for privates down the stairstaking much(prenominal) sport and forageal influences on soccer per doance (Kirkendall et al, 1993). Notwith footing , the assume posture of seriousness disposed to the provenderetic divine guidances of players and nutritionary influences of nourishments interpreted, is turn down in ontogenesis countries than in the substantial ones although near pictures of football conk come forthment has been launched in most of these developing countries.Besides this, a developing field whitethorn be come outd amongst the 3rd world countries of the world, the Republic of Ghana has plant itself swooped along with this pandemic that is virtually ruling the world to twenty dollar bill-four hourslight. In this casing we end cite the exercise of Egypt, that in the last years pretend shown a in truth richly growth in football achievements, and the case of Ghana, that has al supposey r from each o train a honest direct of exploitation of the game with evaluate to achieving laurels.In the last two decades, this sport has gained tremendous attention by sports scientists (Chryssanthopoulos et al, 2009). The give the axe functioning of a football player is as a takings of the combination of talent, capture reproduction and untroubled nutrition. The latter of which has an instal on the forego two (talent and appropriate prepargondness) has being the aspect drop by ball order of magnitudes and even players in loticular.The viandsetical specimen and viands habits of football players determines their nutritional status, as in operate ining to a greater extent, less or just as recommended, ejecting appropriate or junk regimens and as to whether alimentals needd from provender fill gaps created by mechanisms resulting in efficiency using up. The game is characterized by periods of low to fit aerophilic exercise interrupted by frequent activities of condensed sequence and proud frenzy, such as sprinting, jumping, and tackling.It is unambiguous that such an naught-demanding sport requires proper dietetical programmes that result restore or even super-compensat e luggage compartment expertness stores and enhance the organic structure process descriptor of players during cookery and contention (Martin et al, 2006). The postcode unavoidably for an private varies according to their age, energise and the visible activities they carry by dint of during the twenty-four hours. Healthy phallic individuals symbolize an substance competency demand of 2900 kcal· sidereal twenty-four hour periodtime-1 (National Research Council, 1996); however, a headmaster soccer players expertness demand oscillates from 3500 to 4300 kcal/ mean solar day (Clark, 1994; Bangsbo et al. 2006; Ebine et al. , 2002; Rico-Sanz, 1998). It should be ac whopledged that these determine for soccer players motley, and heftiness needs argon met if the dietetical pattern and nourishment habits of a player provides the recommended exigencys coupled with the appropriate animal(prenominal) application as qualification consumption of goods and servi ces expects on the frequency and military strength of reproduction sessions, exercises and delayes which can exchange the nutritional status of an individual (Clark et al, 2003). 1. 2PROBLEM STATEMENTMany enquiryers obtain canvass the dietetical habits of soccer players in an attempt to fancy whether the report diets fulfill dietary recommendations. The vast bulk of these studies welcome examined players at especially Europe and a few epochs at the southern Americas. A oversized anatomy of players, however, compete at the African neighbourhood which is unremarkably a pool from which contrasted lord conjunctions in places like France, England, Italy and Ger or so bring their members to form their squads.Requirement specifications in these studies atomic numeral 18 difficult to apply to participants in this part of the world as they differ in footing of the geopictorial argona, climatic and withstand condition, morphological and physiological features, social setting, avail adequate to(p) feeds altering patterns and habits-to enjoy a few (Lemon,1994). Few studies contrive examined the dietary habits of de rigorous direct soccer players. Furthermore, an differentwise(a) aspect of particular importance that has non received a immense deal attention is the diet of soccer players during the game day and especially the pre-competition repast and the food they refine during after-game rec o really.A proper pre-game meal volition facilitate clay competency stores originally competition by helping to surpass up go through and liver animal starch stores, almostthing that whitethorn enable players to trail greater distances in the issue and at high(prenominal) speeds than they would with suboptimal glycogen bow out aims (Chryssanthopoulos et al, 2009). Also, optimal dietary dream in the hours after the game go out ensure rapid recupeproportionn (Burke et al, 2003). All take part police squads at the 2006 world cup had a nutritionist/dietician in their technical setup (FIFA/F-MARC, 2006).Also 19 out of 20 premier(a) league team ups in England have a nutritionist/dietician in their setup (Article- peak performance, 2005). On the contrary, the growing importance given to nutrition in football has non rightfully gained grounds in Africa as out of the 8 teams that participated in the just ended CAF champions’ league, lone somewhat(prenominal) 2 teams had a nutritionist (CCL report, 2009). In Ghana, query has shown that scarce(prenominal) two teams out of 16 in the elect division have a nutritionist (Ghanafa. com, 15/01/10).In this case, players atomic number 18 left unguided to develop dietary patterns and food habits that big businessman not be estimable with respect to their chosen profession. 1. 3PURPOSE OF STUDY The purpose of this ruminate is to rate the dietary patterns, food habits and heftiness consumption of headmaster person footballers in truly Tamale United football game Club in Tamale Metropolis. 1. 4JUSTIFICATION With the growing interest in football in Sub Saharan Africa, specifically Ghana, t here(predicate) is the need for researches into the nutritional needs of it participants. almost discipline on dietary patterns, food habits, skill demands, development and conditioning strategies ar extrapolated from researches on individuals out of this part of the world especially Europe and the Americas. This research testament check into the nutrition needs, ability expense, dietary patterns and habits of Ghanian professional footballers and to identify what is not known to inspection and repair as a baseline data to gain research in these populations. It will besides designate the demands of a professional footballer in conditions here in Africa, specifically Ghana and similarly what influences these demands. . 5RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 1. 5. 1GENERAL OBJECTIVES The research aims at measureing the dietary patterns, food habits and postcode use of goods and services of professional footballers in the Real Tamale United football Club which is in the Tamale capital. 1. 5. 2SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ?To assess the incidentors that influence dietary pattern and food habit of footballers. ?To assess the forest of foods (macro nourishings) comm scarce consumed by professional footballers. ?To assess the nutritional status of footballers in the club. ?To determine the fleshly use level of footballers. To determine comely zip uptake of the footballers. ?To determine whether professional footballers ensure their cipher demand. CHAPTER twain (2) 2. 0LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this literature review is to sum available research that is related to the concept of the dietary patterns, food habits and cogency white plague of professional footballers and the paygrade of its relevance and put ups on nutritional status. The review allow ins sections devoted to various existing researches on dietary pat terns, food habits and heftiness expenditure of professional footballers.A blink of an eye section will take snap shots into sports nutrition, curiously in football (soccer), and a brief explanation of requirement specifications of dietary uptakes for professional footballers. 2. 1 fairly EXISTING RESEARCHES ON DIETARY INTAKES AND ENERGY use OF PROFESSIONAL football gameERS There be quite a number of researches on the dietary patterns, food habits and susceptibility expenditure of professional footballers in the perceptions ambit. Some atomic number 18 until now being developed, and yet some atomic number 18 under affections which argon likely to possess some step of knowledge as the game gains popularity and participation.Whatever be the case, one particular suit of research might not contain just too much information or knowledge a professional footballer needs. The opposite is true, as knowledge in the sport does not necessarily trigger appropriate dietary p atterns and food habits. As such, it is necessary to know the requirement specifications of participants and compare them to available accepted research publication requirement specifications for a professional footballer in order to make the ruff plectron.The requirement specifications might take into consideration, the geographical location, climatic and weather conditions, morphological and physiological features, social setting, available foods-just to extension a few. There is no doubt that the type, core, patch, and quantify of food ingestion can dramatically pretend exercise performance, recovery from exercise, dead form encumbrance and composition, and rise upness (Burke et al, 2003). Good nutritional physical exertion is of the essence(p) to acrobatic success by improving the quality of culture, maximising performance and speeding recovery time.Soccer is described as a high specialty intermittent sport involving continual changes in operation (Hargreaves, 19 94). When exercise or physical remains of work cast up to more than 1 hour per day, the importance of capable button and wholesome recesss becomes more critical (Manore, 2004). The dietary patterns and food habits developed by individuals involved in such energy demanding sport determines their nutrient stirring, coupled with demands of physical use, have a collective influence on performance and nutritional status (Clark et al, 2003). 2. 2DIETARY PATTERNS AND FOOD HABITS OF FOOTBALLERSAll humans eat to survive. They in addition eat to express appreciation, for a horse sense of belonging, as part of family customs, for self-realization and collect to their channel and profession. For ex large, someone who is not hungry whitethorn eat a piece of cake that has been baked in his or her honour. People eat according to  learn behaviors regarding etiquette, meal and snack patterns, accep hedge foods, food combinations, and fraction size of its. Individuals develop so me kind of behaviors as a result of what goes on around them and they maintain these in the raw behaviors as the best sui circuit card for them (Bandura, 1997).The social cognitive theory ex flying fields how population acquire and maintain certain(prenominal) behavioural patterns, go also providing the basis for hinderance strategies (Bandura, 1997). The more a person is exposed to a food and encour time-worn to eat it, the greater the chances that the food will be accepted (C. Nti, 2009). As the image to a food increases, the person becomes more long-familiar and less fearful of the food, and acceptance may develop (C. Nti, 2009). Some persons however eat specific foods and timber combinations, piece of music others like trying different foods and flavors (Rodriguez, 2009). . 2. 1 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PATTERNS OF FOOD HABITS To live one moldiness eat. But, we not only eat to live, what we eat also affects our might to keep wellnessy, do work, to be halcyon and to live well. Knowledge of what to eat and in what quantities is a prerequisite to the thinking(a) and happy life (Rodriguez, 2009). The average nutritional requirements of companys of people are fixed and depend on such measurable characteristics such as age, sexual urge, crest, incubus, and degree of action mechanism and rate of growth (Martin et al, 2006).Good nutrition requires a satisfactory diet, which is capable of supporting the individual consuming it, in a state of good wellness by providing the desired nutrients in needful falls. It must provide the right amount of go off to execute regular physical carcass process. If the summarise amount of nutrients provided in the diet is in suitable, a state of under nutrition will develop. What and how people eat is compulsive by a conformation of factors, including economic circumstances, pagan norms, and religious restrictions (Judith C. Rodriguez, 2009).Some factors influencing food plectrums include preferenc es, ethnicity, values, habits, handiness, health and nutrition. dietetical patterns, which are affected by a number of reasons, some of which are enumerated above, determine the nutritional and health status of people (Krause and Mahan, 1984). Regardless of the factors influencing dietary patterns, decent food intake is essential as nutritional well-being plays an most-valuable subprogram in health promotion and nutrition. Diet may influence the seek of developing certain chronic diseases and plays a role in preventing mor entreatity and mortality.Eating habits are thus the result of both(prenominal) external factors, such as politics, and natural factors, such as values. These habits are formed, and may change, over a persons lifetime. There is little research on the dietary patterns and food habits of soccer players, this notwithstanding, canvas intakes gives some amount of information on their diet patterns. overlord footballers develop a habit of diminution the intak e of simoleonss and blues and change magnitude intake of proteins and vitamins with the knowledge of preventing increases in metric weight unit (Manore, 2000). This is not the case as R. J.Maughan (2000) recommended increased intake of wampum in particular face at the nature of the sports which is energy demanding. He did this after learning the macronutrient intakes of two elite teams in Scotland. Individuals have some sort of perceptions that go with the kind of profession they choose and football players are not left out. The fact that one is a professional footballer could alter the dietary pattern and food habit of that person. Also, availability of food (the individual’s env pushment) influences the site of food choices he or she can make. 2. 3ENERGY AND NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF participating agent INDIVIDUALSMeeting energy needs is the early nutritional precedence for athletes and one of the most frequently asked questions is â€Å"How much should I eat to stay fit and healthy? ” A healthy diet contains the right pro passels of moolah, risqueten out, protein, vitamins and minerals (Maughan, 2000). shekelss and plunks are the landing field(ip) ascendants of energy although energy can be obtained from protein. alert individuals need more energy ( small calories) each day than their sedentary counterparts-assuming individuals are of the same age, frame size and participate in similar non-physically bustling passing(a) activities (Manore, 2000).Exercise requires energy to send a style and repair the energys, thus, meeting one’s energy needs to maintain body weight should be a forwardity for any athlete or alive(predicate)(p) individual (Clark et al, 2003). zip fastener oddment is achieved when the energy consumed (sum of energy from food, supplements and fluids) equals energy expenditure (sum of all the energy expended by the body in movement or to maintain body functions) (Swinburn and Ravussin, 1993). s ubtle whether one is in energy balance is childlike: weight is maintained.If energy intake does not cover the costs of energy expenditure, then weight and muscle jackpot are doomed, and the ability to perform grueling exercise typically declines (Black et al, 2000). When energy intake is restricted, change and muscle mountain will be utilized for energy to fuel the body, and the loss of muscle potbelly will result in the loss of strong suit and survival. Additionally, chronically low energy intake usually results in lamentable nutrient intakes, including kale, protein, vitamins and minerals.Exactly how much energy an active individual needs each day will depend on a number of factors, including age, sexual practice, body size, level and intensity of physical natural action and activities of day-to-day living. The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the work of Medicine (IOM) in 2002 reviewed the energy needs of active and very active individuals and provided some famil iar recommendations base on age and body size. In universal, the frontmost goal of an active individual is to maintain adequate energy intake to ensure that a healthy body weight is maintained.Although this seems like a truthful task, there are many active individuals who regard this difficult to do. For these individuals, a dietary plan that assures meals and snacks are not skipped will improve energy intake and help maintain weight (Manore, 2000). Finally, energy needs typically decrease with age, so even if practise levels do not change, the amount of energy needful to maintain body weight will decrease. For this reason, body weight typically increases with age, even if military action levels pillow constant (Black et al, 2000). 2. 4MACRONUTRIENT CONSUMPTION dinero, protein and fat are important nutrients for active individuals, but the amounts of these macronutrients indispensable will depend on an individual’s physical bodily process, its intensity, duration a nd frequency, the type of exercise engaged in, and their health, body size, age and gender (Maughan, 2000). Macronutrient recommendations for those engaged in day-after-day physical bodily process are given down the stairs and in give in 2. 1. panel 2. 1 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for macronutrients and recommendations for active individuals Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for macronutrients and recommendations for active individualsNutrientNew Guidelines-2002Old Guidelines-1989Guidelines for Active Individuals Carbohydrate45-65% of intact energy? 50% of total energyThe amount of simoleons required for moderate intensity exercise is 5-7 g/kg body weight; 7-12 g/kg body weight for high intensity endurance activities Protein10-35% of total energy, 0. 8 g/kg of bodyweight10-15% of total energy, 0. 8 g/kg of body weightProtein requirements are typically higher in active individuals. Recommendations couch from 1. 2-1. 7 g of protein/kg body weight. This level of protein ty pically represents 15% of total energy.Fat20-35% of total energy? 30% of total energyFat intakes amongst 20-35%. Carbohydrate and protein needs should be met first-class honours degree. IOM, 2002. FNB, 1989. Burke et al, 2004; Tipton and Wolfe, 2004. 2. 4. 1Carbohydrate needs The mix of fuel (protein, fat, scratch) burned during physical legal action depends primarily on the intensity and duration of the body process performed, one’s level of fittingness, and prior nutritional status. All other conditions being equal, as exercise intensity increases the use of carbohydrate for energy will also increase (Brooks & Mercier, 1994; Brooks & Trimmer, 1995).The duration of exercise also changes substrates use. As duration of exercise increases (e. g. , from 60 to 120 min), muscle glycogen becomes depleted, causing the body to draw on circulating line of reasoning glucose as a writer of carbohydrate (Clark et al, 2003). If blood glucose cannot be maintained inwardl y physiological run during exercise, the ability to perform intensity exercise will decrease (Coyle et al. , 1986). Fat can be apply as a germ of energy over a wide range of exercise intensities; however, the proportion of energy contributed by fat decreases as exercise intensity increases.In these circumstances, carbohydrate becomes the prevalent fuel source small-arm the contribution from fat decreases (Bergman et al. , 1999). Protein can also be use for energy at rest and during exercise; however, in well-fed individuals it probably provides 4. 0 and TEE of 33 MJ/d in a bicycle race and a polar exploration. The maximum for a sustainable way of life may be that represented by soldiers on active service, with a esteem chum salmon of 2. 4 and TEE of 18 MJ/d (Black et al, 2002). Among athletes in training, misbegotten befriends is 2-3. 5, with TEE ranging from 11 to 18 MJ/d in women, and from 15 to 30 MJ/d in men (UNU, 2004).PALs greater than 2. 4 were obtained in periods o f ‘ unyielding training, which is unlikely to be a sustained lifestyle. The get values for PAL, 2. 0-2. 3, were obtained in periods of apparently routine training and may well be sustained for all-inclusive periods of time (UNU, 2004). Table 2. 4 Characteristics and energy expenditure (obtained by DLW) in different age and sex groups by UNU, 2004. while group (y)n get along (y)Height (m)Weight (kg)BMI (kg/m2)  means. d. means. d. means. d. means. d. Females 18-298924. 4(3. 7)1. 66(0. 06)69. 2(22. 3)25. 3(8. 1) 30-397633. 8(3. 0)1. 64(0. 07)67. (13. 9)25. 2(4. 9) 40-644751. 6(8. 3)1. 65(0. 07)70. 0(13. 3)25. 9(4. 6) Males 18-295622. 5(3. 5)1. 77(0. 07)75. 6(18. 4)24. 0(5. 3) 30-393634. 3(3. 3)1. 79(0. 06)86. 1(31. 4)26. 8(8. 8) 40-641550. 6(8. 8)1. 76(0. 06)77. 0(10. 0)24. 9(3. 0) TEE (MJ/d)basal metabolic rate (MJ/d)AEE (MJ/d)PAL Age group (y)nmeans. d. means. d. means. d. means. d. Females 18-298910. 4(2. 2)6. 2(1. 1)4. 2(1. 7)1. 70(0. 28) 30-397610. 0(1. 7)6. 0(0. 6) 4. 1(1. 5)1. 68(0. 25) 40-64479. 8(1. 7)5. 8(0. 7)4. 0(1. 4)1. 69(0. 23) Males 18-295613. 8(3. 0)7. 5(1. 2)6. 3(2. 5)1. 85(0. 33) 30-393614. 3(3. 1)8. 2(1. 8)6. 1(2. 5)1. 77(0. 1) 40-641511. 5(1. 7)7. 0(0. 8)4. 5(1. 3)1. 64(0. 17) The FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation (2004) suggested the average perfunctory energy requirement of adults whose occupational work is classified ad as light, moderate, or heavy, uttered as a multiple of basal metabolic rate, to be as follows: LightModerateHeavy Men1. 551. 782. 10 Women1. 561. 641. 82 2. 7. 2Methods of determining caloric needs There are many different methods and canons used to determine caloric maintenance level or energy expenditure by taking into card the factors of age, sex, big top, weight, go body push-down stack, and activity level.Any method and shape that takes into account tenuous body mass (LBM) gives the most close finale of energy expenditure, but even without LBM a somewhat close estimate can be attained. 2. 7. 3Eq uations base on basal metabolic rate. A much more accurate method for cypher total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) is to determine basal metabolic rate (BMR) using multiple factors, including height, weight, age and sex, then reproduce the BMR by an activity factor to determine TDEE (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). BMR is the total number of calories your body requires for normal bodily functions (excluding activity factors).This includes keeping your heart b consume, inhaling and exhaling air, domiciliateing food, qualification new blood cells, maintaining your body temperature and every other metabolic process in your body. In other words, your BMR is all the energy used for the staple fibre processes of life itself. BMR usually accounts for round two-thirds of total daily energy expenditure. BMR may vary dramatically from person to person depending on ancestral factors. BMR is at its lowest when you are residualing undisturbed and you are not digesting anything.It is very important to note that the higher your social class body mass is, the higher your BMR will be (Burke et al, 2004). This is very significant if loss of body fat is needed because it means that the more muscle you have, the more calories you will burn. Muscle is metabolically active tissue, and it requires a great deal of energy just to sustain it. It is unresolved then that one way to increase BMR is to engage in weight training in order to increase and/or maintain lean body mass. In this trend it could be verbalise that weight training helps you lose body fat, albeit indirectly (Clark et al, 2003). . 7. 4The Harris-Benedict conventionality (BMR found on total body weight) The Harris Benedict equating is a calorie formula using the factors of height, weight, age, and sex to determine basal metabolic rate (BMR). This makes it more accurate than determining calorie needs ground on total bodyweight alone. The only variable it does not take into consideration is lean body mass. Therefore, this par will be very accurate in all but the exceedingly muscular (will underestimate caloric needs) and the extremely overfat (will overestimate caloric needs). mathematically; Men: BMR = 66 + (13. X wt in kg) + (5 X ht in cm) †(6. 8 X age in years) Women: BMR = 655 + (9. 6 X wt in kg) + (1. 8 X ht in cm) †(4. 7 X age in years) come up daily energy expenditure is calculated by multiplying BMR by a multiplier (PAL). 2. 7. 5Katch-McArdle formula (BMR based on lean body weight) This formula from Katch & McArdle takes into account lean body mass (weight) and so is more accurate than a formula based on total body weight. The Harris Benedict equation has separate formulas for men and women because men generally have a higher LBM and this is factored into the mens formula.Since the Katch-McArdle formula accounts for LBM, this whizz formula applies equally to both men and women. Mathematically; BMR (men and women) = 370 + (21. 6 X lean mass in kg) To determine TDEE f rom BMR, you simply multiply BMR by the activity multiplier: the physical activity level. 2. 8SNAPSHOTS INTO GENERAL SPORTS NUTRITION AND NUTRITION IN FOOTBALL (SOCCER) In every day to day activity in life on earth, maintaining a good health within and without has being the main aim of humans in general. This is not different from that of football players, as keeping fit and playacting regularly void of injuries has being the motive.Training and Diet plays a study role in this behaviour and keeping principal of the latter (diet patterns and habits) becomes cumbersome with a lot of lapses coming up every now and then. football was, for a long time, classed as an endurance sport collectable largely to the fact that a football yoke lasted at to the lowest degree 90 minutes. As a result, the nutritional requirements of football players were extrapolated from early scientific research carried out in relation to other ‘endurance sports’ such as running and cycling.It is true that the duration of a football match is normally 90 minutes; however, the training loads associated with these sports are immensely different (Maughan, 2000). On closer inspection it becomes clear that daily energy expenditure of professional football players may not be particularly high. Football players are generally inactive when not training and training load will vary, depending on factors such as the stage of the sequence, or whether tactical or fitness drills predominate in training.If football players were to consume 7-10g of carbohydrate per kg body weight each day (a recommendation found in many textbook) then a quick calculation that include reasonable amounts of protein and fat would generate a daily energy intake closer to 4,200kcal (Maughan, 2000). In Scandinavia this may be closer to the truth. Once the playing season gets underway the Scandinavian put forwards typically train septet multiplication per week (Manore, 2000). So it is not affect that energ y intakes will exceed 4,000kcal in a country like Sweden (Clark et al, 2003).An athlete’s diet must be high in carbohydrate, moderate in protein, low in fat, include sufficient vitamins and minerals, and plenty of fluid. ’ This was the original model with which many football nutritionists and players used to work (Article-peak performance, 2009). Although very simple, much of it unflurried holds today. However, understanding the game has improved; nutritionists have been able to tease out strategies from each of the model’s sub-sections that more closely match the requirements of our sport. What is different is that cognizance no longer holds ll the cards. Football has caught up with science and is now dictating where research efforts are directed. For, example, the glycemic world power of foods, a ranking of foods based on their immediate effect on blood glucose, has become a particularly useful tool in football. Five years ago the approach in football was t o advise a high carbohydrate, low fat diet at all times. Any food that at all met these requirements would be recommended to players in a bid to maximise muscle glycogen storage for training and competition.Now a more heedful approach is utilise with the glycemic index and, to a lesser extent, the insulin index apply in a bid to control body composition as well as carbohydrate provision (Article-peak performance, 2009). Emphasis is now placed more on achieving optimum carbohydrate intake prior to matches, and during the recovery period after matches, particularly when some clubs find themselves involved in up to three games per week in the busiest part of the season. Good attitudes to reducing fat intake are now a commonplace in the modern player.Emphasis is placed on increasing intake of certain fatty acids that are found to be lacking in players’ diets. When playing dietary analyses of players, low intakes of essential fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA; docosahe xenoic acid, DHA) are consistently reported. Despite the appearance of oily look for in the canteens of football clubs, there may be a case for blanket supplementation in this particular group of sportsmen (Maughan, 2000). There is growing conclusion that protein supplementation after training can gain protein synthesis and adaptation of muscle.The type, timing and amount of protein can be manipulated to enhance the adaptive response (Coyle et al, 1999). The work of researchers such as Bob Wolfe and Kevin Tipton in Texas, and microphone Rennie in Dundee (whose primary interest has been likened to ‘preventing older people falling down’) has enabled the design of strategies of protein-intake that may prove better adaptation to training. Despite the progress that has been make in our understanding of the demands of football, there is a need for continued improvement. No other sub-discipline of sports medicine comes with so many contrasting views of what is right and wr ong.The ‘Zone’ diet, the ‘Atkins’ diet, mass supplementation, the concept of the ‘nutritional guru’ †all are still prevalent in the modern game. Players are congruous more demanding due to conversations with other players from other teams, and also other athletes from other sports. Players from overseas bring with them their own ideas (nearly always related to vitamin intake), but very practically lacking in scientific support (Article-peak performance, 2009). In addition, at present there is a aboriginal mismatch in what players and practitioners view as important.Players believe in supplements, extra vitamins and minerals: anything that involves increasing muscle mass, and reducing energy intake to achieve ‘lean’ body composition. Scientific research, on the other hand, demonstrates that players should concentrate more on appropriate energy intake, and high carbohydrate and fluid intake. Sports nutrition is important in football because food provides us with energy for our muscles, brain and other organs. Football requires plenty of exercise, and because it is important to have energy available during the game. The energy available at any particular time depends on blood sugar levels.If we over-eat, we become over-weight. The heavier we are, the more work our muscles have to do to take us the same distance. This reduces formidability, and the ability to accelerate quickly. If we under-eat, we can become weak and our general health can decline, because we are not acquiring rich nutrients. A healthy diet improves general level of health, and can help recovery more quickly from injuries (Clark et al, 2003). Along with a program of fitness training, diet can help develop stamina and improve athletic performance (Maughan, 2000). Diet is essential for our growth, and development.The timing of the meals consumed is important. Healthy male individuals present an average energy demand of 2900kcal·day -1 (National Research Council, 1996); however, a professional soccer players energy demand oscillates from 3500 to 4300 kcal/day (Clark, 1994; Bangsbo et al. , 2006; Ebine et al. , 2002; Rico-Sanz, 1998a). It should be acknowledged that these values for soccer players vary from week to week, and energy expenditure depends on the frequency and intensity of training sessions, exercises and matches. In soccer, players require a diet with a high dowery of carbohydrates (Rico-Sanz et al. 1998).On the day of a match the intake of fat and protein should be restricted, as these nutrients require a congenericly long time to be digested. Pre-competition meal must be 3-4 hours in advance the match (Bangsbo et al. , 2006). The pre-competition meal should be: high in carbohydrate (this is the fuel that your body needs to perform at the highest level), low in fat, low in protein, low in fiber, not too bulky, and lentogoing to digest. A snack high in carbohydrate may be eaten about 2 hours i n advance the match; however the time reference is only a guideline as there are great individual differences in the ability to digest food.Once the game is over, fluids should be replaced and carbohydrate should be consumed as soon as executable to promote recovery of glycogen stores. As soon as possible aim to consume a meal which is high in carbohydrates. Foods such as pasta, spaghetti, rice, noodles, low fat pasta sauce, bread, potatoes, and baked beans should be consumed during this period (Manore, 2000). Carbohydrate rich foods must be the main source of your diet. Consume the main bulk of the diet from daedal carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates should not be consumed in large quantities and are more useful as snacks between workouts, or to exit up your energy intake.The carbohydrate consumed should be balanced with a healthy intake of protein, low fat and plenty of takings and vegetables. The water supply lost from the body during sw have needs to be replaced to stop the process of getting tired quickly, and also speed up the recovery process †that means feeling fitter and sharper afterwards a lot sooner. For footballers, the best fluid to drink is a diluted carbohydrate/electrolyte solution; ideally, it’s best to drink before, during and after a training session, as well as drinking frequently during a match (peak performance, 2009).After all matches, players should attempt to ingest enough carbohydrate-containing sports drink to replace all the fluid theyve lost during competition. After strenuous workouts, water should also be replaced, and football athletes need to eat at to the lowest degree 500 calories of carbohydrate during the two hours following practice in order to maximize their rates of glycogen storage. CHAPTER THREE (3) 3. 0METHODOLOGY The research aims at assessing the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers, in Real Tamale United Football Club in the Tamale capital, and its eff ect on nutritional status.The research will root specific questions about the factors that influence dietary pattern and food habits of footballers, foods/macronutrients commonly consumed by professional footballers; the nutritional status of footballers in the club, the physical activity level of footballers, the average energy expenditure of the footballers and then whether professional footballers meet their energy requirement. 3. 1BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA 3. 1. 1Location and coat Tamale city is one of the eighteen districts of the northern region of Ghana. Tamale, the administrative capital of the region is located at the center of the region.The seat of government shares common boundaries with Savelugu/Nanton district on the north, and Tolon/Kumbungu district on the northwest. Also, it is bordered west and cardinal Gonja districts on the south; and east Gonja and Yendi districts on the east. The seat of government occupies a landmass with approximately 922 square kil ometers, which is about 13 percent of the total land area of the region ( shareal Coordinating Council, RCC, 2010). 3. 1. 2Vegetation and Climate The botany of the metropolis is that of a typical guinea savanna zone with tall trees such as neem, shea and kapok, interspersed with grasses.During the rainy season, the vegetation becomes luxuriant, providing green scenery. The change season is however, characterized by prohibitionist grasses with the trees shedding off their leaves as well as an exposed environment to bushfires. As a result of its location in the savanna belt, the metropolis experiences only one rainy season which begins in April/May, attains its peak in July/August and ends in September/October, and a long dry season from November to March. The mean one-year rainfall and dry sunshine stands at 1100mm and 7. 5hours respectively.On the average, the metropolis experiences only 95days of intense rainfall. Also, the average maximum and lower limit ranges are relatively 33°C -39°C and 20°C -22°C (Ghana Meteorological Services, 2010). 3. 1. 3Demographic Characteristics Tamale metropolis has a population of about 350,000 inhabitants which constitutes about 20% of the total population of the region (Ghana Statistical Services, 2008). The metropolis is heterogeneous and encompasses diverse ethnic groups that are the Dagombas, Gonjas, Mamprusi and Akans among others with the dagombas constituting about 80% of the population.Moslems are the predominant religious group followed by Christians. The most important festivals of the people of the metropolis are damba and yam festivals. However, other festivals including Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul Adha, which are Islamic festivals, are celebrated in the area. 3. 1. 4Socio-Economic Characteristics Farming is the major occupation of the people of Tamale. They cultivate rice, maize, guinea corn, cowpea, groundnuts, soybeans, yam and cassava. They also rear animals including sheep, goats, guinea fowls an d cattle.However, the crops and animals are in general produced by peri-urban and rural dwellers. Other economic ventures include groundnut oil extraction and trading by women mostly on small scale. Men are ofttimes seen to engage in smock weaving, tailoring, machine repairs, carpentry and butchery. The increasing levels of educational attainments have contributed to the number of civil servants including teachers, nurses and security personnel among others in the area. 3. 1. 5Foods Consumed A variety of foods are consumed by the people of Tamale and its environs.At home, tuo-zaafi (TZ), a staple food of the Dagombas, which is fain from maize, is consumed by most people. In general, TZ is consumed with a vegetable-based soup especially dry Okro. In the urban and peri-urban communities, TZ is usually the meal interpreted at supper, whilst a maize-based porridge or tea is taken as eat. In the metropolis, lunch is hardly ready at home, hence the people choose from a variety of st reet foods available. Thus, the people in the urban Tamale consume a lot of street foods including hot up yam, rice and beans among others. . 2THE STUDY AREA 3. 2. 1HISTORY OF RTU Real Tamale United, often called as R. T. U. , is a Ghanaian football club based in Tamale in the Northern Region of Ghana. They are a member of the Ghanaian Globacom premier league. Their home stadium is the Tamale Sports Stadium. The club was founded in 1976 by the first chairman Alhaji Adam. The club has 36 players periodly, of which 25 were used in this study. With the working(a) definition of a professional football team and player, RTU was the only team that met the criteria for selection in the Tamale metropolis.The club has only win the Ghana Telecom Gala once in 1997/98 season with three appearances in CAF competitions in 1992, 1996 and 1998 of which they were eliminated in the first round. Recently, the club battled for survival in the Ghanaian Globacom Premiership for two years running. 3. 3 THE STUDY tribe AND SAMPLE SELECTION The population for this study will be male professional footballers in the club. The operational definition of a professional footballer in the context of this study will be an individual who plays elite or first division club football.Football players in the Real Tamale United Football Club, in the Tamale metropolis of the Northern Region, were sampled purposively and used as the vox sample for this study on the basis that the club is based in Ghana, a country well known for its interest in football development; the club participates in the country’s first division known as the premiership which means all players in the club play at the top level of football in the country and finally located in the Northern Region of the country: an area where poverty and illiteracy rates are high which has influences in areas of sports nutrition and performance. . 3. 1SELECTION CRITERIA Thirty five-spot members of the Real Tamale United football squa d aged 17-30years were recruited for the study. Only 25 subjects met the requirements of being void of ailment and injury carried out during a two day fitness test in the presence of the team physiotherapist. All amounts and data were done at a time when the premier league was ongoing with players playing week in week out matches. 3. 4BODY softwood INDEX: its Calculation Body mass index is based on a weight-to-height ratio that indicates the energy reserves of an individual.BMI is a ratio of weight in kilograms to the square of the height in meters. Heights and weights are therefore the indicators for calculating the BMI of an individual. BMI is the catamenia method for calculating a healthy body weight and is based on the study of a wide variety of people from many countries. The FAO/WHO/UNU (2004) established reference values for comparing the BMI of active individuals. Mathematically; BMI = WEIGHT (Kg) / height (M? ). The unit of BMI is thus, kgm??. 3. 5BASAL METABOLIC RATES: its CalculationIt is the minimum amount of energy needed to keep the body alive and is the largest component of an average persons daily energy expenditure. The BMR is usually expressed simply as kilocalories per day or in units of energy per unit get hold area (or per kilogram body mass) per unit time. It is very difficult to determine the absolute minimum metabolic rate, but estimates are usually standardized by being do when a person is resting gently after at least(prenominal) 8 hours sleep and 12 hours since the last meal.In this study, BMR of subjects was estimated using the Harris-Benedict equation which takes into consideration parameters such as age, height and weight of the individual. Mathematically; BMR (MEN) = 66 + (13. 7 X wt in kg) + (5 X ht in cm) †(6. 8 X age in years). The unit of BMR is therefore kcal/day. 3. 6DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVELS AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE natural activity levels of individuals are estimated from daily activities undert aken, taking into consideration its intensity and duration.According to Ainsworth et al (2004), these daily activities are represented as values known as physical activity ratios (PAR values). Considering the intensity and duration of the activity taken with respect to the PAR values, an estimate of the physical activity level (PAL) is determined (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). The PAL values are categorized as light, moderate and heavy activity (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004) and when multiplied by the BMR of the individual, an estimation of energy expenditure is determined. Mathematically; PAL = ? (PAR ? DURATION OF ACTIVITY) ? (TIME exhausted IN EACH ACTIVITY) ENERGY EXPENDITURE = PAL ?BMR The unit of energy expenditure is thus, kcal/day or KJ. 3. 7DATA COLLECTION AND INSTRUMENTATION 3. 7. 1Questionnaire The major factor for collecting the data was semi-structured questionnaire administered to soccer players through self-reporting. The questionnaire was knowing to collect quantitative data, but some soft data was also gathered as well. The questionnaire was in three forms, namely, the general nutrition knowledge questionnaire which also had sections for anthropometric infixs, the food dairy and the physical activity dairy (Appendix I, II and III). 3. 7. 2AnthropometryAnthropometry was one of the techniques employed in the data collection and was based on the measurement of only the height and weight of the respondents. The anthropometry was do an inviolate part of the questionnaire and efforts were do to ensure that these parameters were measured to make the questionnaire completely fill. The procedures employed in carrying out the measurements are elaborated in the sections to a lower place. These procedures are based on the FAO/WHO/UNU technical report standards for the measurement of weight and height of physically active individuals. Weight measurementThe subjects were weighed using an electronic bathroom scale with an accuracy of 0. 1kg, before aurora training. The subjects wore light clothes as much as possible and on bare foot before weighing took place. each subject to be weighed was do to stand upright and in a relaxed manner on the scale with the eyes looking horizontally to the feet and the hand by the sides. The weight was then read and immediately preserve. Height Measurement Heights of the respondents were measured using a wall-mounted stadiometer. Prior to the measurement, it was ensured that the subjects wore neither ootwear, boots nor socks. Each subject to be measured was make to stand upright and erect against the wall, with the heels, buttocks and the upper bear touching the wall, the feet close together and the eyes looking straight. A ruler was then placed on the crown of the head towards the stadio measurements and the reading immediately record to the nearest 1. 0cm. 3. 7. 3Food intake Subjects were educated and given verbal and written book of instructions (Appendix IV) on the procedures involved in written text food intake in a food intake dairy on a free non-training day.A food intake dairy (Appendix II) was given to each of the participants to be filled according to their daily dietary intake taking into consideration meals, portion sizes, food type and quantity for septette neat days ((Bingham, 2000; Tilgner and Schiller, 1991). Dairies were checked in every two days to ensure mark recording and correction in any case of wrong recording or difficulty in recording. All dairies were accumulate after seven days. Samples of estimated portion sizes of foods were acquired and weighed using a kitchen weighing scale and record to the nearest 0. g. The nutrient composition of the meals was calculated using the FAO food composition table for Africa and reported as a mean of 4 days’ food intake. This data was used to assess nutrient consumption. To assess adequacy in nutrient intake, the results obtained were compared with the FAO/WHO/UNU RDA for physically active adults (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004) . 3. 7. 4Physical Activity simulate Subjects were educated and given verbal and written instructions (Appendix IV) on the procedures involved in recording, as enlarge as possible, information on their daily activity patterns.A physical activity or training dairy (Appendix III) was given to each subject to be filled under sections of activity type and its duration in minutes for seven accompanying days. Dairies were checked in every two days to ensure correct recording and correction in any case of wrong recording or difficulty in recording. Training sessions were constantly monitored and subjects where individually questioned in cases were irregularities in recording were encountered. Their activities were classified broadly into three categories: light, moderate and heavy. A 7-days’ activity record was compiled for each subject on imilar days when food intake was measured. The activity data were reported as a mean of 4 days’ activity records. This data was used to compute energy expenditure and nutrient requirement for each subject. 3. 7. 5Observation Several observations were made at the training fields, at inhabit bases and in homes of the subjects. These dwelled in the kinds of foods consumed and activities undertaken, the places of meal consumption and purchasing. Also, the components of training regimes were discovered and recorded. 3. 7. 6Focus-Group Discussion Focus-group discussions were held with subjects on free and camping days.Each discussion group was made up of between eight and twelve individuals with a facilitator and a recorder. The FDGs were meant to reveal certain issues that were not captured by the questionnaire and to confirm the answers provided in the semi-structured questionnaire including the factors that influence certain behaviours of subjects with respect to dietary habits and physical activity. 3. 8THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND CONCEPTS The study seeks to assess the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expendit ure of professional footballers of Real Tamale United FC in the Tamale metropolis.This is achieved through the mind of usual food intake and physical activity and the computation of BMI and BMR and the determination of daily energy expenditure. These have being reported as relevant measurement of an athlete’s nutritional status. The first and second objectives of which respectively seek to assess the dietary patterns and food habits and macronutrient consumption are achieved through reported nutrition questionnaires and recorded food consumption for seven consecutive days using the food dairy.The third objective, which seeks to assess the nutritional status of professional soccer players using BMI, was achieved through the measurement of height and weight of the footballers. The fourth and fifth objective, which seeks to determine the physical activity level and average energy expenditure of footballers was achieved through self-reported physical activity dairy for seven con secutive days computed using physical activity ratio with time duration (to attain physical activity levels) and physical activity levels in multiples of their BMRs (to attain energy expenditure).The sixth and final objective, which seeks to determine whether professional footballers meet their energy requirements was achieved through a self-reported food record dairy for seven consecutive days with nutrient contents of foods consumed computed using the FAO food composition table for Africa. 3. 9STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Data were analyzed using the EpiInfo rendering 3. 2. 1 and Microsoft Excel computer programme. Results are presented as mean ±SD, range, graphs, figures and tables. Anthropometric data from players was transform into BMI to assess their nutritional status and BMR to assess physical activity levels.Dietary and physical activity data from players was transformed into nutrient requirements, physical activity levels and energy expenditure respectively to assess the level of malnutrition. 3. 10ASSUMPTIONS The most limpid assumption is that the sample represents the population. Also, it is believed that all instruments have harshness and measure the required value. We assume that participants will not modify their habitual diet patterns and food habits during the course of the study week. Finally, we assume that respondents will answer sincerely all questionnaires and report truthfully in both the food and activity dairies. CHAPTER FOUR (4) . 0RESULTS The physical characteristics of the twenty five (25) subjects are shown in Table 4. 1. prohibited of the 25 subjects studied, only one weighed less than 60kg while the range indicated (57 and 87kg) were the two extreme body weights recorded in this study. Their body mass index (kg/m? ) ranged from 19. 38 to 30. 3 kg/m? ; out of the 25 subjects studied, only two were over the 190cm (1. 9m) while the range indicated (1. 52 and 1. 95m) were the extreme heights recorded in the study. Table 4. 1 Physical characteristics of subjects ParametersMeans (25)SDRange Age (yrs. )23. 684. 2417-30 Weight (kg)70. 647. 657-87 Height (m)1. 69. 41. 52-1. 95 BMI (kg/m? )23. 082. 719. 38-30. 3 4. 1Dietary Patterns and Habits 4. 1. 1Favourite Food Choices of Subjects The general meal patterns were obtained through self-reported food dairies. Porridges and beverages took the highest frequency of consumption in term of its 7day presence in diets and its frequency among subjects. Records for breakfast shows that baby porridge made from corn, millet or rice, beans and groundnuts (tom brown) is mostly consumed by all subjects (100%). Fufu was the least consumed diet within the 7day period (2days) with Tuo Zaafi recording the least number of subject patronages (7subjects).The results of the common foods taken, their frequencies in the diet and meal times are shown in table 4. 2. TABLE 4. 2 Common foods eaten by players SOURCES OF MACRONUTRIENTS (FOODS)FREQUENCY IN DIET (7DAYS) FREQUENCY OF SUBJECTSEATING MOMENTS Plain rice/jollof rice5days20Lunch and dinner party Kenkey (Ga and Fante)3days15Lunch Tuo Zaafi4days7Dinner Banku5days18Lunch and dinner Fried rice and chicken 4days22Lunch and dinner Soups (groundnut, palm nut, light, Okro)3days20Lunch and dinner Porridges (baby, hausa, tom brown)7days25Breakfast Meat and Beef7days21Lunch and dinner Fufu2days11Lunch and dinnerYam (boiled and heat)4days14Lunch and dinner Rice and beans (waakye)5days16Lunch Egg (fried and boiled)3days20Breakfast and lunch beverages (tea, oats, fruit drinks)7days22Breakfast and as a snack fish (fried)3days17Lunch and dinner 4. 1. 2Eating moments An assessment of the usual food pattern revealed that 90. 7% of the players took at least three meals a day. virtually meal times skipped were breakfast and lunch, that is, 57. 14% and 28. 57% respectively. Table 4. 3 The alimentation moments of players in terms of meals skipped Meal TimeFrequencyPercentage BREAKFAST457. 14 LUNCH228. 57 SUPPER114 TOTAL7100 4. 1. R easons for players food choices The reasons for the choice of foods by the subjects among others included convenience, lack of money, inability to cook, general sports reasons and food availability. The results indicated (as shown in figure 1) that, 10 of the players made food choices based on sports reasons. Figure 1The reasons for food choices of players 4. 1. 4General Food Habits of Players (Sports Nutrition) From the results obtained from the questionnaire on general sports nutrition, 60% of the players consume fried rice and chicken before a competitive match with 40% consuming plain rice and stew.Players gave various reasons such as its easy and fast digestion, it not been too heavy, it been recommended by coaches and it been the only available food given at the camp base. 68% of players consumed these foods 3-4hrs before a match with 24% and 8% consuming theirs at 4 or more hours and 2-3hrs respectively. Most of the players gave similar reasons for eating at these times as gi ving the food ample time to digest. 92% of the players take fluids such as bottled water, glucose solution and energy drinks during a match. 88% of the players take 1-3 of 300ml fluid whiles 12% take 4-7 of 300ml of fluid.Snacks consumed before and during a match included energy drinks, glucose mixtures, soft drinks, savouries among others. Most snacks were taken 2hours before a match. 56% of the players take nutrition supplements such as multivitamin capsules, iron and zinc capsules and blood tonics. Reasons such as increasing energy levels, boosting appetite and to aid in the body’s fast recovery were given. 64. 29% of the players take these supplements all the time and they get these supplements from the pharmacy shops. 96% of the players buy roadside foods such as fried rice, tuo zaafi and fufu and soup. 2% of the players eat once a while at the restaurant with 44% and 4% eating at times and all the time at the restaurant respectively. 80% of players eat home disposed(p) meals. 4. 2NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF PLAYERS BMI CATEGORIES (kg/m? )FREQUENCYPERCENTAGES (%)INTERPRETATION 0. 05), suggesting average energy balance was achieved. The mean intakes of the energy producing macronutrients were 37. 18%, 43. 23% and 19. 6% for carbohydrate, fat and protein respectively. When reported as a percentage of total calories, carbohydrate and protein intakes were significantly lower and higher (p > 0. 05) respectively of the recommended levels.Fat intake was significantly higher (p > 0. 05) than the higher value in the recommended range (35%). When macronutrient intake is expressed in g/kg/day (Table 4. 6), carbohydrate and protein intakes fell below and above their recommended ranges. The table below shows the mean energy and macronutrient intake of players. MealsMean of IntakesPercentagesSDRange full(a) energy intakes (KJ/day) Breakfast763. 2927. 42178. 09256-1019. 4 Lunch1015. 2136. 47227. 22680. 9-1723. 3 Dinner1004. 9836. 12286. 07528-1637 replete(p)278 3. 48100451. 551985. 6-4105. 5 Total energy intake in proteins (KJ/day) Breakfast349. 7564. 1294. 97106. 3-437. 2Lunch89. 8816. 4837. 9930. 8-183. 0 Dinner105. 8519. 461. 5134. 9-253. 4 Total (%TEI)545. 49100 (19. 6)130. 81297-783. 9 Total energy intake in carbohydrates (KJ/day) Breakfast282. 427. 2974. 46116. 7-438. 7 Lunch360. 3234. 8283. 9265. 5-642. 3 Dinner392. 0937. 89129. 15172. 1-790 Total (%TEI)1034. 79100(37. 18)168. 79768. 1-1507. 3 Total energy intake in fats (KJ/day) Breakfast111. 189. 2459. 9433. 2-280. 5 Lunch595. 7349. 5309. 55296-1793. 7 Dinner496. 2941. 25150. 02206. 1-838. 4 Total (%TEI)1203. 20100 (43. 23)373. 25756. 8-2587. 5 TABLE 4. 6The mean daily energy and macronutrient intake of players in terms of meal times.Energy intake from the table above indicates slightly higher levels of consumption at lunch times over dinner times at 1015. 21kcal/day (36. 47%) and 1004. 98kcal/day (36. 12%) respectively. Energy intakes range from 1985. 6-4105. 5kcal/day. Macronutr ient intakes were slightly distributed across all meal times. Table 4. 7The mean daily energy and macronutrient intake of players in comparison with FAO/WHO/UNU 2004 reference values. IntakesMeans (kcal/dayPercentageskcal/kg/dayg/kg/dayReference: g/kg/day (%range) Energy (TDEI)2783. 43-39. 4-3500-4300 kcal/day Carbohydrate1034. 7937. 1814. 653. 7-12 (45-65) Protein545. 4919. 67. 721. 91. 2-1. 7 (10-35) Fat1203. 243. 2317. 031. 9- (20-35) TDEE3932. 55-55. 67†TDEI2783. 45-39. 4†TDEE-TDEI1149. 1-16. 27†4. 4. 2Difference in energy intake and expenditure According to data gotten from both the food and physical activity dairy, the mean energy deficit is 1134kcal/day (16. 1kcal/kg/day). Energy intake was slightly higher than expenditure at target 7, 11 and 20 representing 141. 76kcal/day, 1045. 7kcal/day and 447kcal/day in extra energy respectively. Figure 3 shows the graphical illustration of energy intake as against expenditure.Figure 3Energy intake and expenditure of pla yers CHAPTER FIVE (5) 5. 0DISCUSSION 5. 1DIETARY PATTERNS AND FOOD HABITS The dietary changes observed among these players are consistent with the findings of Rodriguez (2009) on changes in dietary habits as to a high protein intake of players in particular. R. Maughan (2000) suggested that football players tend to consume high intakes of protein with the spirit of increasing muscle mass. This was not different with the current study as players consumed high levels of protein based foods due to its easy access and availability within the study area.The players also had habits of consuming foods high in fat leading to its contribution of 43. 23% to total energy intake, as these levels of fat proportion may be detrimental to health (Martin et al, 2006). Cost, availability and convenience were challenges and these made them adapt to the habit of patronizing wayside foods (96%). It is, therefore, not surprising that majority ate fried rice and chicken, tuo zaafi and fufu and soup. Alth ough breakfast is an important meal of the day, quite a significant number of players in this study skipped it.Skipping breakfast may also lead to over eating during the rest of the day. Most of the foods consumed were from staples but these resulted in very low carbohydrate intakes (1034. 79 ± 168. 8 kcal/day). These may be as a result of the poor nutrient content of the foods as a result of poor cooking habits as foods eaten are prepared by food vendors (C. Nti, 2009). Meals consumed before a match was plain rice and tomato stew which may have negative effect on performance, with respect to the tomato stew which is high in fat, and this may hinder the fast release of energy to the body for endurance activities.The over reliance on wayside food and players left to fend for themselves with no amount of supervision may be detrimental to health and nutritional status. Most of these way side foods have very high levels of fat and this may account for the high amount of fat in diets. The eating behaviour of the players might have been influenced by other factors including food availability, convenience and personal income level, as these seemingly determine an individual’s food choice and habit. Thus one cannot eat foods if they are not available, cannot be prepared or cannot be afforded. . 2MACRONUTRIENTS Carbohydrate is the primary fuel substrate during soccer, and consequently high dietary intakes of 45-65% of total calorific intake have been recommended for athletes (Clark, 1994; Bangsbo et al, 2006; Ebine et al. , 2002) and footballers (Burke et al, 2004; IOM, 2002). In this study, carbohydrate intake was significantly lower than these recommendations (37. 18 ± 6. 1%, p < 0. 05). When expressed relative to body mass (weight), the daily carbohydrate intake of 3. g/kg/day was way below the recommended 7-12g/kg/day for very active individuals (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). The current data provide further evidence to the commonly observed low carbohydrate intakes that are insufficient for adequate glycogen replacement in male athletes (R. Maughan, 2000). Dietary recommendations for promoting maximal glycogen replacement and for the maintenance of muscle glycogen levels are to consume a high carbohydrate diet, 45-60% (IOM, 2002) and a daily intake of 7-12g/kg/day (Bangsbo et al, 2006).Based upon these recommendations, players in the current study reported carbohydrate intakes that are likely to be inadequate to replace muscle and liver glycogen stores which rapidly deplete during repeated bouts of high intensity exercise performed during training and competition (Bangsbo et al, 2006). Ultimately, both the quality of training and match perform\r\n'